What to Think About Before Meeting With an Estate Planning Lawyer

I am happy to announce that we have finally finished creating a series of short videos regarding the estate planning and estate administration process.  Here is our third video in which Kevin A. Pollock, Esq., LLM is being interviewed by Pierson W. Backes, Esq., the head of our estate litigation department, regarding the things a person should think about before meeting with an estate planning attorney.


Some of the things people should think about include where you want your money to go, who you want to be in charge of your estate, who you would want to act as trustee of any trusts you create, and who should be guardians of any minor or disabled children. 

The role of the attorney should be help people put the legal structure in place, including setting up trusts, and to make the plan tax efficient.  A good estate planning attorney will also help you understand the options on how to get money to different people.  For example, if you want to leave $100,000 to a sibling, it might be more tax efficient to name them as beneficiary of a life insurance policy rather than naming them as a beneficiary under your Will,

To learn more about estate planning or hiring an elder law Attorney, please visit us at: https://pollockfirm.com/

What is the first thing an executor of a Will should do?

I am happy to announce that we have finally finished creating a series of short videos regarding the estate planning and estate administration process.  Here is our second video in which Elizabeth Ketterson, Esq., the Director of our estate administration department, is being interviewed by Kevin A. Pollock, Esq., LL.M. regarding the first things a person who is in charge of an estate should do.

If the person is named under a Will, that person is known as the executor.  If there is no Will, that person can apply to the court to be appointed as an administrator of the estate.

We recommend that you meet with an attorney that your are comfortable with to help you prepare the paperwork necessary to be appointed as Executor or Administrator.  The Court will then give you the necessary paperwork to speak with banks, set up an account, and make any claim for funds owed to the estate.  Once you have started collecting assets, then you can arrange to pay the estate's bills.

We strongly recommend that you do NOT distribute money to any beneficiaries until all the bills have been paid and you have received a waiver or release from the beneficiaries stating that they approve of your actions as executor.

To learn more about estate administration or hiring a probate Attorney, please visit us at: https://pollockfirm.com/estate-administration-2/

Why You Should Have A Will

I am happy to announce that we have finally finished creating a series of short videos regarding the estate planning and estate administration process.  Here is our first video on the importance of having a Will.

Terry Pratchett's Executor Destroys Unpublished Work of Author

As a fan of the works of Author Terry Pratchett, in particular Going Postal and Making Money, I got a chuckle out of this story in the New York Times.  As some of you are aware, Terry Pratchett died in 2015.  One of his last wishes was that all of his unpublished works be destroyed by a steamroller.  A few days ago, Rob Wilkins, his estate manager posted a picture of a steamroller running over a hard drive.

Compare what Terry Pratchett did with what the Administrator of Prince's estate is doing.  Comerica Bank and Trust, as Trustee of Prince's estate, is slowly analyzing all of Prince's unpublished works and the plan is to release an album shortly to maximize the value of the estate.  Whether or not Prince would have wanted the works to be released is debatable, but because he did not leave clear instructions, an Administrator is obligating to exploit the assets as best it can so that his heirs receive the most money possible.

Remember, if you have written any books or have any other intellectual property where you wish to control of their disposition after you pass away, you must leave specific instructions for what you want done in your last Will and Testament (or other estate planning documents).  You may also name a separate executor or agent to manage your intellectual property (who may be distinct from the person managing the rest of your financial affairs).

Requirement of Executors to Report Basis of Assets When Administering an Estate - FollowUp

The IRS has released new regulations that have extended the due date for filing Form 8971 to March 31, 2016.  Executors and administrators of estates that are required to file a federal Form 706 Estate Tax Return are now also required to file Form 8971 and report the basis of the assets included in the estate to the beneficiaries of the estate.

As discussed in my post on February 7, 2016, the IRS is trying to consistently tax assets for estate tax and capital gains tax purposes.  Requiring executors to supply this information to beneficiaries and the government is their attempt to better track this information.  

Additionally, there was an open question as to whether all estates had to file the Form 8971 or just those that were over the federal estate tax exemption threshold.  According to this publication from Bessemer Trust, the IRS has issued regulations that state that if you are filing a form 706 merely to elect portability, you do not also need to file form 8971. 

Thanks again to Abby Moller for bringing this to my attention 

IRS Releases Form 8971 - Executors Now Required to Report Basis of Assets When Administering Estate

For many years the IRS and beneficiaries of estates had a problem figuring out how much gain should be imposed on an inherited asset because the beneficiaries did not know the basis.  The IRS did not like the fact that frequently the value reported by an Executor was not the value reported by a beneficiary when an inherited asset was sold.   

Accordingly, the government enacted Internal Revenue Code Section 1014(f) and is requiring that any estate which is required to file an estate tax return (Form 706) also file Form 8971 (including all attached Schedule(s) A), retro-active to decedents who died after July 2015. The executor must also provide Schedule A to each beneficiary receiving assets from the estate. Both requirements must be met within 30 days after the date on which Form 706 is required to be filed with the IRS, or the date that is 30 days after the date Form 706 is filed with the IRS, whichever is earlier. 

Notice 2015-57 has made February 29, 2016 the due date for all Forms 8971 (including all attached Schedule(s) A) required to be filed with the IRS after July 31, 2015, and before February 29, 2016. Penalties may be imposed for failure to comply with this new filing requirement.

If an estate is not required to file a Form 706, then there is no corresponding requirement to file a Form 8971.  However, it is probably good practice for the executor to advise the beneficiaries of the value of assets as determined on a decedent's date of death so that everyone knows what the new basis is in the inherited assets. 

Instructions for Form 8971 can be found here: https://www.irs.gov/instructions/i8971/ch01.html

I note that there are a number of important items that are not clear:
1)  Does Form 8971 need to be filed when an estate files Form 706 for purposes of porting the DSUE of a deceased spouse. Accordingly, until we receive clarification, it would probably be best practice to do so.

2) Which beneficiaries should actually receive a copy of the Form?  For example, it would make sense to give the form to the beneficiaries of a trust.  It would make more sense to give it to the trustee of a trust.

3) Form 8971 asks "Did this asset increase the estate tax liability?"  I am a little unclear on what this actually means.  I would think that you should pretty much always answer yes to this question.  However, I have heard one commentator state that this really muddies the waters because theoretically assets that qualify for the Marital Deduction, Charitable Deduction, or other similar deductions do not increase the estate tax liability.  Nevertheless, I do not believe the IRS now saying we don't get a step up in basis for those assets.  I believe this is primarily to identify non-qualified preferred stock options and potentially negative value assets.  After all, it would be shocking for the IRS to say that assets passing to a spouse do not receive a step up under the normal 1014 basis rules.  If I here otherwise, I will be sure to let you know... and join in the revolt against the politicians!

4) What about situations where a beneficiary is actually allowed to have a basis higher than a decedent's date of death value?  Examples of this potentially include:  situations where a beneficiary gifted away an asset within one (1) year of death, where a decedent dies owning an interest in a partnership or limited liability company subject to a debt, or real estate subject to a non-recourse debt. 

The American Bar Association Taxation Section has submitted a letter to the IRS requesting clarification of many of these items.  I hope we will all hear a response soon.

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Updated 3/23/16 - Thanks to Abby Moller for finding a few typos in this article. Additionally, she has advised me that apparently you do not need to file Form 8971 just for purposes of portability.  I will try to find additional support for this.

Update to Executor's Commissions in NJ

Back in March of 2014, I wrote a lengthy post about how to Calculate an Executor's Commissions in New Jersey.  Frankly, most of the executors I work with don't want a commission.  However, I recently came across an interesting situation where an executor wanted a commission and the decedent had substantial joint survivorship accounts with the executor.

Normally, a survivorship account is not subject to an executor's commission on the theory that the executor doesn't have to do any work with respect to those accounts.  In this situation though, the survivorship accounts were actually convenience accounts.  A convenience account is a type of account that goes to the surviving account holder, primarily to pay bills, but based upon the intent of those involved, the balance of the funds will be disposed of with the rest of the Decedent's estate.  In other words, the money does not legally belong to the surviving joint account holder, it belongs to the estate of the Decedent.

In my situation, even though the money passed to the executor, in his individual capacity, on the death of the decedent, the money will ultimately be processed through the estate's accounts and go to the beneficiaries under the Decedent's Will. Accordingly, the executor CAN take a commission on these joint accounts.  More importantly, this commission is tax deductible for purposes of calculating the New Jersey estate tax.

I had trouble finding legal authority for this position, so I called up the New Jersey Division of Tax, Estate and Inheritance Department, and they confirmed this result.

Duty of Executor to Defend a Will Against a Will Contest in Pennsylvania

In most states, when a person is named as an executor in the Will, the executor has an affirmative duty to defend the Will from Will contests.  For example, if mom dies testate leaving her entire estate to child one, cutting out child number two, and child number two sues to say the Will is result of undue influence, the executor would be obligated to defend the validity of the Will and could hire an attorney using estate assets to aid in the defense.  Unless the executor caused the undue influence, he would not be personally liable to the estate for the cost in defending the validity of the Will.

Pennsylvania law is quite different from most other states in that while an executor is a necessary party to a contest involving the Will, the executor is generally not a party in interest who has standing to instigate a contest or to appeal a decree of distribution. (In re Estate of Fleigle, 664 A.2d 612, 444 Pa Super. 632 (1995))  An executor who has not been surcharged or is not required to distribute an amount larger than the total assets of the estate has no standing to except to an adjudication of the auditing judge regarding payment of claims against an estate unless the executor is also a residuary beneficiary of the estate.  (Appeal of Gannon, 428 Pa. Super. 349, 360-61, 631 A. 2d 176, 181 (1993))  The executor is entitled to notice and may then elect whether to become a party (Royer’s Ap. 13 Pa. 569; Yardley v. Cuthbertson, 108 Pa. 395, 445-448), although if he does become a party his costs and counsel fees must be paid by him or those who authorize him, not by the estate.  (Faust Estate, 364 Pa. 529 (1950))

The Faust case is extremely important because it shifts the burden for payment of legal fees from the estate to the executor personally if the executor decides to insert himself or herself into a Will contest.  Additionally, if executors engage in an act that is beyond their scope as representatives of an estate, they risk losing their executor's commission.

Pennsylvania law does have a few exceptions for when an executor can get involved in a Will contest.  An exception exists where a testator directs or imposes a duty on the executor to defend the Will against contests.  (Bennett Estate, 366 Pa. 232 (1951); See also:  Tutelea Estate, 4 Pa. D. & C. 3d 199 (1974))  Another exception to the Pennsylvania rule is where the executor is also a trustee and is required to defend the trust.  (Fetter's Est., 151 Pa.Super. 32, 29 A.2d 361 (1942)).

We also need to differentiate cases where an executor is being sued for his services as executor.  (Browarsky Estate, 437 Pa. 282 (1970))  Because the executor is placed in the position to be sued because of duties he had performs for the estate, it would be unjust to require him personally to bear the reasonable costs of the defense of suits brought against them solely by reason of their positions as executors. "It is well established that whenever there is an unsuccessful attempt by a beneficiary to surcharge a fiduciary, the latter is entitled to an allowance out of the estate to pay for counsel fees and necessary expenditures in defending himself against the attack [citing cases]." Wormley Estate, 359 Pa. 295, 300-01, 59 A.2d 98, 100 (1948). Accord: Coulter Estate, 379 Pa. 209, 108 A.2d 681 (1954).

Finally, there is very old case that stands for the proposition that: “The executor propounding a Will for probate, acting in good faith, is entitled to costs out of the estate, whether probate is granted or refused.”  (Ammon’s Appeal, 31 Pa. 311).  I note that I can’t find the case, only a cite in a treatise, but I believe this to still be good law if the executor does not get involved in a Will contest.

If an executor uses estate assets to pay for legal fees related to a lawsuit against himself or because the executor impermissibly got himself involved in a Will contest, a judge can surcharge counsel of an estate or counsel for an executor. (Faust)

The rationale behind the Pennsylvania case law is that a Will contest is between the testamentary beneficiary and the heirs or next of kin, therefore the executor should not waste estate assets on their dispute.  The rationale behind the rules in most other states presumes that the testator wrote the Will the way he or she wanted it and the executor should try to uphold the testator's intent.

From a practical point of view of estate administration attorneys, we need to consider three things.  One, we need to understand the source of the money from which we are getting paid and keep track of it. If we are paid from the estate for a Will contest or for an objection to an accounting, we may be required to give the money back to the estate.  Personally, we always ask for a retainer from a proposed executor before they have qualified executor.  Accordingly, they are paying me with their own money and getting reimbursed from the estate later.  Also, attorneys should put language in their retainer agreements stating that the proposed executor is personally liable for the legal work if he cannot qualify as executor or if we wind up doing work for the executor in an individual capacity.

Second, in the event of a Will contest or an objection to an accounting, attorneys should track their time separately.  Time spent on the Will contest or an objection to an accounting should be differentiated from time spent administering the estate.

Finally, attorneys should consider whether they want to draft their estate planning documents in a way to change the default rules regarding an executor's duty to defend the Will.  Personally, I think that it makes more sense for an executor to use estate assets to defend the integrity of a Will and that the executor shouldn't be personally liable absent gross negligence, willful misconduct or bad faith. After all, some beneficiaries might not have the resources or the mental capacity to act in their own best interests.
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Thanks to Pierson W. Backes, Esq. for his help with this article.

Calculating NJ Executor Commissions

From time to time, people ask me about executor's commissions and trustee's commissions in New Jersey.  Because it is a bit complex, I have broken it down into two posts and I will focus on commissions for executors and administrators today.

To start, a Will can specifically provide for an executor's commission.  In that absence of expressly authorizing a commission an executor will be entitled to take an executor's fee as provided in New Jersey Statutes 3B:18-12 through 3B:18-17. These same statutes also provide that if a person dies intestate (dies without a Will), the administrator of the estate may also take a fee.  Since the fees for an executor and administrator are the same, I will use the term interchangeably for purposes of this post.

New Jersey statutes are very difficult to interpret because they use the term fiduciary to apply to executors, administrators, trustees, guardians and conservators.  This would not be a problem if the fees were calculated the same, but they are not. 

So how is the executor's fee actually calculated?

First, an executor is entitled to annual income commissions of 6% without prior court approval. (N.J.S.A. 3B:18-13)

Second is the calculation of the corpus (or principal) commission.  This is a bit more of a complicated formula. Normally an executor will take a one time commission as follows:

1. 5% on the first $200,000 of all corpus received by the executor;
2. 3.5% on the excess over $200,000 up to $1,000,000;
3. 2% on the excess over $1,000,000;
4. and 1% of all corpus for each additional executor provided that no one executor shall be entitled to any greater commission than that which would be allowed if there were but one executor involved.   (N.J.S.A. 3B:18-14)

Sometimes an estate administration goes on for a lengthy period of time.  Under such circumstances, an executor can also receive an annual commission equal to 1/5 of 1% (or 0.2%) of the corpus.  However, this commission is not that frequently taken and a court may disallow it if it is in excess of  N.J.S.A. 3B:18-14.

What assets are part of the corpus when determining the executor's commission?
The corpus of an estate is generally defined to mean any asset that has come into the hands of the executor.

Examples of assets that come into the hands of the executor are:  Bank accounts, automobiles, tax refunds, business interests, an interest in a lawsuit or litigation, life insurance payable to the estate, retirement accounts with no beneficiary and real estate that were owned by the decedent. 

Examples of assets that do not come into the hands of the executor and are not subject to the commission include: Life insurance (if there is a beneficiary other than the estate), retirement accounts where a beneficiary other than the estate is named, property that is held as joint tenancy by the entirety or joint tenants with rights of survivorship.

What about mortgaged property - do I use the net value or the gross value?

While it may be unfair if the estate is heavily leveraged, the commission is taken on the gross estate, not the net.  If the result is too onerous, a beneficiary may wish to seek judicial relief.

An illustration of how to calculate the executor commission
Let's presume the following facts:  Decedent owned a vacation house worth $500,000 and a mortgage of $100,000, a primary residence owned with his wife as tenancy by the entirety worth $1,000,000 and a mortgage of $300,000, a $400,000 IRA payable to his wife, $200,000 in stocks and bonds, a $200,000 life insurance policy payable to his children, and $100,000 worth of insurance with no beneficiary. 

Let's also presume that there is only one executor and during the administration, the $200,000 of stocks and bonds gave off $5000 of income. 

Included for purposes of calculating the commission are:  the $500,000 house, the $200,000 in stocks and bonds and the $100,000 life insurance policy with no beneficiary (for a total of $800,000).  There is no deduction for the the $100,000 mortgage.  The primary residence, the IRA and the $200,000 life insurance policy are excluded.

5% on the first $200,000 would be $10,000
3.5% on the next $600,000 would be $21,000
6% on the $5000 of income would be $300
So the executor would be entitled to a total commission of $31,300.


Final thoughts about executors commissions

Any commission that an executor takes will be subject to an income tax.  As a result, if the executor is also a beneficiary, he or she may not want to take a commission.  Additionally, many times relatives do not appreciate the amount of work involved and will become upset at an executor if he or she takes a commission. You should think about the dynamics of your family before taking one.

An executor that does extraordinary work can apply to the court for a commission in excess of the statutory fee.  An executor that behaves badly can be removed by the court.  If an executor or administrator is removed from office, he or she may be required by a judge to forfeit his commissions.  This is not automatic though.

Finally, as discussed in back in May of 2013, an attorney who is serving as an executor may be entitled to a fee for legal services AND a commission.

Choosing an Executor, Trustee and Guardian

Clients frequently ask me for advice on who they should name as Executor, Trustee or Guardian when creating their Last Will and Testament.  First, let me explain the difference between the three roles.

The Executor is the person who probates your Will, goes into your house and looks through all your things, safeguards your assets, gathers up your money, pays your bills, files any income tax, estate tax or inheritance tax returns that need to be filed, and then distributes the balance of your money according to the instructions in your Will.  One or more individuals or corporate fiduciaries can serve as Executor.

The Trustee is the person who takes the assets that the Executor (or Grantor) gives him, invests the money in a prudent fashion, and distributes the money to the beneficiary of the trust in accordance with its terms.  One or more individuals or corporate fiduciaries can serve as Trustee. 

The Guardian is the person who will raise your minor children until they are 18 (or longer for an incapicitated individual). 

The three main qualities that you want to look for in an Executor and Trustee are:

1. Someone that is trustworthy and won't steal the money;
2. Someone that will not be overwhelmed by the role, there is a lot of work involved; and
3. Someone that does not have a bad relationship with the beneficiaries and will be able to communicate with them.

You will notice that I did not say that the exeuctor or trustee must be good at investing money.  That is because I believe the other characteristics are much more important.  An honest person who is diligent can always hire an investment manager. They just need to keep an eye on the investment manager.

The three main qualities that you want to look for in a Guardian are:

1. Someone that will love and care for your children;
2. Someone that will raise your children in a manner that you wish (including religion, education, diet, etc.); and
3. Someone that will have a stable family household.

Frequently, clients will name one party as executor or trustee and another person as guardian.  Sometimes this can be a good idea as the two parties can then monitor each other.  Additionally, this is a way to get two parts of the family to interact.  However, if there is someone that you truly trust to serve in all three roles, it is usually best to name them and not divide the roles just for the sake of dividing the roles.

For all of these positions, age may be a factor as well as you may not want to name someone too young or too old.  It is a heavy burden to put on people.  I never, ever recommend naming people just so they won't feel excluded. 

Finally, an attorney can serve as an Executor or Trustee, but you can name whomever you wish.

Copyrights after Death of Author

If you are a writer, artist, musician, photographer or other professional who has created a copyrightable work, you should realize that you are creating an asset that should be carefully managed after you pass away.

The first thing that you should know is that if you have created a work after January 1, 1978, the copyright will generally last for another 70 years after you die.  This does not apply to works created under a pseudonym or published anonymously.  In those situations, the rule is that the copyright lasts for 120 years from creation or 95 years from first publication, whichever expires first. (Section 203 of Copyright Statute)

Under your Will, you may direct who inherits your copyrights.  Additionally, you may set up an "Intellectual Property Executor" to deal with such copyrights while a traditional executor handles your other affairs.  This may be important if management of your copyrights requires special business acumen.

Importantly, under the 1978 Act, the creater of a copyright who assigned the copyright has the right to rescind such assignment.  Additionally, if a loved one who has produced copyrighted material has passed away, the heirs or the executor may also have the right to rescind such assignment. 

If you are the heir to (or an executor of) an estate of someone who has produced any copyrighted works, please feel free to contact us so that we can help you determine what rights you may have.

Right to Reclaim a Copyright

Very few people are aware that we are entering a unique period of time for muscians, artists, writers and their heirs.  In 1976, the U.S. Copyright Act was amended to allow the creator of a copyright to reclaim the rights to a work that was assigned.  Congress recognized that many new musicians, authors and artists were being taken advantage of by entertainment companies because they had so little leverage.  As a result, such individuals often assigned their rights for very little money.  The purpose of the Act was to allow individuals who had created the copyrightable material to terminate a bad assignment so that they could better profit from their work.

The Copyright Act allows the original copyright owner, the person who created the copyrighted work, to reclaim the work typically 35 years after the assignment.  However, notice of such termination can ONLY be done during a five year period which starts 30 years after the execution of a grant that does not include the right of publication.  For grants that do include the right of publication, notice of such termination must be made no earlier than 30 years after the execution of such grant or 25 years after publication under the grant, whichever comes first.

The timing of when one must reclaim can be quite confusing, but it is also critical.  Accordingly, it is best to consult an attorney immediately if you are the original owner of a copyright or an heir to the original owner of a copyright.

While the original copyright owner can terminate an assignment for any reason, it might be worthwhile to reclaim the copyright if the owner:
1)  had assigned the copyright for an unreasonably low amount;
2)  does not like the way the assignee has been utilizing the copyright; or
3)  has a bad relationship with the assignee.

Importantly, the right to reclaim the copyright doesn't just apply to the individual who created the copyright, but also to the heirs and the estate of such individual.   The corporations that own such assignments are not obligated to tell the creator of a copyright that he has the right to terminate the original assignment, so it is up to you to look out for your own interests.  However, if you are an executor of an estate, it is your duty to marshal all the assets of the estate, including any copyrights that might be outstanding.

The duty to marshal the assets of the estate basically means the executor must do a cost benefit analysis to determine whether to terminate any outstanding copyright assignments or let them be.  Additionally, on the planning side, if you are the original owner of a copyright, you may wish to create a position of a literary executor under your Will to manage all your copyrights.  Because managing a person's copyrights can be quite complex, the duties will require a knowledge and expertise that many traditional executors may not have.

If you are the heir to (or an executor of) an estate of someone who has produced any copyrighted works, please feel free to contact us so that we can help you determine what rights you may have.

Please note that the ability to reclaim a copyright does not apply to works for hire.

Estate Administration and Bad Credit

Everybody knows that good credit is important for receiving favorable financing terms when buying a car or a house. Let me give you another reason to keep your credit up: the ability to act as administrator of the estate of parent or loved one.

When a person passes away without a Will, the closest next of kin can petition the Court to act as Administrator for the decedent's estate. The Court will usually agree to let the next of kin act as Administrator provided that they agree to pay for a Probate Bond. A Probate Bond is basically an insurance policy that insures provides the intestate beneficiaries and creditors of the estate with a way to receive some money in the event the Adminstrator absconds with the funds.

The Court will require a probate bond in almost all situations in which the decedent dies without a Will. A person can only qualify for a Probate Bond if he or she has good credit or significant assets to their name.

Obviously, the way to avoid this situation is to make sure your parents and loved ones prepare a Will which states that no bond is required. However, you find that you are involved in an estate administration in which the decedent did not prepare a Will, before you spend a lot of money trying to qualify as an Administrator, Executor or Trustee, make sure you have good credit.

The Mystery of Calculating Executor's Fees in Pennsylvania

The issue of calculating fees for an executor, executrix, administrator or personal representative in Pennsylvania estate cases is interesting because there is in fact no hard and fast rule about how such fees are to be calculated. Therefore no sure way to know what you can expect to see in the accounting if you are a beneficiary.

While executors’ fees are set by statute in many states, the “PEF” Code (the Pennsylvania Probate, Estates and Fiduciaries Code) provides only that a personal representative’s compensation shall be “reasonable and just” – based upon the specifics of each estate - and that it “may” be calculated on a graduated percentage. (20 Pa.C.S. §3537) The executor then has several options available, including charging (i) a flat fee or (ii) an hourly fee.

Though a "reasonable and just" standard may appear to be a very loose, wishy-washy standard, anyone acting as an executor or administrator should be aware that the executor’s commission will ultimately be subject to review on many levels: first and foremost, by the Orphan’s Court, to determine the reasonableness of the fee based upon the size of the estate, particularly if a beneficiary has objected to the accounting; second, by the Attorney General’s office, to review the fees’ effect upon the pay out of a charitable gift if a charity is a beneficiary of the estate; and third, by the Department of Revenue, to ensure against fraudulent deductions for fees claimed on the Inheritance Tax Return.

To guard against the prospect of an unfavorable audit, the Pennsylvania personal representative should take careful note of the percentage guidelines established by the court in Johnson Estate, 4 Fid.Rep.2d 6,8 (1983). In actuality, although the schedule established in Johnson was only included as an attachment to the judge’s written opinion, it has served as the unofficial guideline for gauging executor commissions and attorney fees ever since, with countless other judges adopting it as their own benchmark for review of accountings in subsequent cases.

Typically, if the ultimate commission is not more than what is provided on the Johnson schedule (below), and is calculated based upon standards of financial reason and fairness, it is likely that it will likely be met with approval all around.

EXECUTOR COMMISSIONS
						Per Col.	Per Total
	$	00.01	to	100,000.00	5%	5,000.00	5,000.00
	$	100,000.01	to	200,000.00	4%	4,000.00	9,000.00
Executor or	$	200,000.01	to	1,000,000.00	3%	24,000.00	33,000.00
Administrator	$	1,000,000.01	to	2,000,000.00	2%	20,000.00	53,000.00
	$	2,000,000.01	to	3,000,000.00	1½%	15,000.00	68,000.00
	$	3,000,000.01	to	4,000,000.00	1%	10,000.00	78,000.00
	$	4,000,000.01	to	5,000,000.00	½%	5,000.00	83,000.00

1%	Joint Accounts	1%	P.O.D. Bonds	1%	Trust Funds
3%	Real Estate Converted with Aid of Broker	5%	Real Estate: Non-Converted	1%	Real Estate: Specific Devise

Reasonableness, however, always reigns: While the percentage method appeals to judges of the Orphans' Court, keep in mind the Pennsylvania Superior Court has criticized the practice in their own opinions in Sonovick Estate, 373 Pa. Super 396 (1988), and Preston Estate, 560 A.2d 160 (1989).

An Executor should also consider that money received as compensation for any fiduciary duties is taxable for federal income tax purposes and usually for state income tax purposes as well. Accordingly, the executor may want to elect NOT take a commission after all as he or she may receive more by just receiving his or her distributive share of the estate.

For purposes of this article, I have used the titles "executor", "executrix", "administrator" or "personal representative" interchangeably. All refer to the person or entity that is in charge of administering a decedent's estate. In fact, an executor or executrix is a party that is appointed by a Will; an administrator is a party that is not appointed by Will, but is approved by the Court; and a personal representative can be either a party named in a Will or appointed by the Court.

NOTE: Special thanks to Elizabeth Carter for helping to prepare this article.

A Comparison of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Inheritance Tax Laws

Some states, including New Jersey and Pennsylvania, have an inheritance tax. Other states, like Florida and New York, do not have an inheritance tax. An inheritance tax is a tax on the person who receives money from a decedent.

The inheritance tax rate itself depends upon the relationship between the person receiving the money and decedent. For example:

1. In both New Jersey and Pennsylvania, if the person receiving the money is a spouse (or a charity), there is no tax.
2. If the person receiving money is a sibling, there is a flat 12% tax in PA. In NJ it is a bit more complicated - the first $25,000 is exempt; beyond that there is a tax of 11-16% depending upon on the amount of the bequest.
3. Generally, if the person receiving money is anyone else (besides a child, parent or same sex partner), then there is a 15% flat Pennsylvania inheritance tax and a 15 or 16% New Jersey inheritance tax depending upon the amount of the bequest.
4. The first BIG DIFFERENCE is that Pennsylvania taxes bequests to all lineal descendants and certain lineal ascendants at 4.5%. New Jersey does not charge an inheritance tax to any lineal descendants or ascendants. (Note: Pennsylvania does not charge a tax on the bequest to a parent if the decedent was under 22 years of age.)
5. The second BIG DIFFERENCE is that Pennsylvania has a 15% inheritance tax on bequests to a same sex partner. In New Jersey, as long as the partners are in a civil union or domestic partnership, there is zero inheritance tax. If the partners are not in a civil union or domestic partnership, then there is a 15 or 16% tax, depending upon the amount of the bequest. For more information, see my blog on Estate Planning for Same Sex Couples.
6. In NJ, a bequest to a son-in-law or a daughter-in-law is taxed at the same rate as a bequest to a sibling. N.J.S.A. Section 54:34-2c. In PA, such transfers are taxed at the same rate as a bequest to a child. 72 PS 9116 (Note: If the son-in-law or daughter-in-law later remarries, this does not apply.)
7. In both NJ and PA, step children and adopted children are taxed in the same manner as natural children. New Jersey also allows inheritance tax free transfers to mutually acknowledged children in certain circumstances. N.J.S.A. Section 54:34-2a.
8. The only other significant difference in the rates is that New Jersey exempts transfers that are less than $500. Pennsylvania exempts certain transfers of up to $3,000.

New Jersey and Pennsylvania also have similarities and differences between the types of assets that they will tax. This is not a complete list, but as an example:

1. Neither state taxes life insurance, real property located outside of the state or business interests located outside of the state;
2. Both states will fully tax cash and brokerage assets of individuals who died while domiciled in their state.
3. Both states will fully tax real estate and business interests located inside the state of resident and non-resident domiciliaries.
4. Joint property held with rights of survivorship are fully taxed in New Jersey unless the recipient can prove he or she contributed to the joint property. In Pennsylvania, only the portion of the property owned by the decedent is taxed.
5. IRAs, Annuities, 401(k)s, 403(b)s and other retirement assets are taxed in New Jersey, but not in Pennsylvania, provided the account owner passes away before having the right to withdraw the money free of penalty (generally before retirement age of 59.5) AND provided that a person was named as beneficiary of the retirement plan. In PA, if the owner of the 401(k) has the right to close down the account it will also be subject to a tax, this is generally age 62 or 65.
6. Retirement plans, annuities and other benefits payable by the federal government to a beneficiary are not subject to an inheritance tax in NJ or PA.
7. In Pennsylvania, transfers made within one year of death are taxable, but each such transfer is subject to a credit of up to $3,000 per recipient. In New Jersey, transfers "made in contemplation of death" are taxable for inheritance tax purposes. There is a presumption that transfers made within three years of death are made "in contemplation of death".

Note: An inheritance tax is not to be confused with an estate tax. A state can have either an inheritance or an estate tax, both, or neither. Additionally, many of the assets that are exempt from inheritance tax (such as life insurance) are subject to an estate tax.

The NJ inheritance tax is due within 8 months from the date of death. In PA, the inheritance tax is due within 9 months of the date of death, but there is a 5% discount if the tax is paid within 3 months from the date of death.

The NJ Inheritance tax statute can be found at N.J.S.A Section 54:34-1, et. seq. The PA Inheritance tax statute can be found at 72 PS 9101, et. seq.

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Edited on January 20, 2011 thanks to input from Patricia Picardi.

New Jersey Estate Tax

New Jersey has many different types of taxes, including two different taxes on death: the NJ Estate Tax and the NJ inheritance tax. The New Jersey estate tax is a tax on transfers at death and certain transfers in contemplation of death.

Transfers to charities, a surviving spouse or a surviving Civil Union partner are exempt from the NJ estate tax. Transfers to anyone else are taxable to the extent that the transfer exceeds $675,000. New Jersey never does anything in a simple manner, and it does not technically offer a $675,000 exemption from the estate tax. NJ actually exempts the first $60,000 of transfer and then taxes the next $615,000 at 0%. The effect of this is that the first $675,000 can almost always pass to whomever you want tax free.

Each New Jersey resident is entitled to the NJ estate tax exemption. Accordingly, married couples and Civil Union couples can double the amount that they pass on to their children with proper planning. (This usually involves setting up a bypass trust for the surviving partner or spouse rather than leaving them money outright.)

The New Jersey estate tax is a progressive tax, meaning that the more you pass on, the higher the tax rate. The NJ estate tax rate generally varies from 0% to 16% depending upon the amount of the transfer. The major exception is that for the first $52,175 over $675,000, there is a 37% tax. For a detailed breakdown of the tax rates, see page 10 of the NJ Estate Tax Return.

New Jersey offers two different method of calculating the state estate tax on the NJ Estate Tax Return: the 706 method and the so called "Simplified Method". The Simplified Method allows the executor or administrator of the estate to avoid filing a 2001 version of the federal estate return, but it often results in a higher tax. For this reason, it is often advisable to hire a competent estate planning attorney to minimize this tax liability.

A decedent's estate can be subject to both the NJ estate and inheritance taxes. New Jersey does offer some relief if an estate is subject to both taxes. For example, if a person with $1,000,000 dies and leaves the entire amount to her nephew, this transfer would be subject to both taxes. A transfer of one million dollars in normally subject to a $33,200 New Jersey estate tax. A transfer of this amount though is also subject to a $150,000 New Jersey inheritance tax. In such an instance, New Jersey would only collect only the higher tax, the 15% inheritance tax in this case.

The NJ estate tax is due within 9 months from the date of the decedent's death. This is different than the NJ inheritance tax, which is due within 8 months from the date of the decedent's death.

The NJ estate tax should not be confused with the federal estate tax. Unless Congress acts to extend the repeal of the federal estate tax (which I think to be highly unlikely), the United States will have a separate and additional tax on death.

How to Avoid Estate Litigation - Communication

Sometimes there is no preventing an estate litigation. When a family member steals items from the estate, or when the Will is poorly drafting making it confusing, litigation is sure to follow.

However, most good estate attorneys will tell you, one of the biggest reasons that unnecessary litigation results is due to family members not communicating with each other. Lack of communication by the person in charge of the estate leads the other family members to believe that the executor (or administrator) is hiding something. More often than not, the person in charge is just too busy or overwhelmed. Things get said which are better left unsaid, and then the worst of all situations arises - it no longer is about getting what you are entitled to under the Will, but about how Mom or Dad always loved the other one more.

Once the administration of an estate is no longer about getting through the difficult administration process, but about opening old family wounds, people seem more than happy to hire aggressive litigators to settle the score. In the long run, this ALWAYS costs the estate far more. It costs the estate more money in attorneys' fees and it costs the family any semblance of family unity. It is rare that siblings, or cousins, will ever get along again after there has been an estate litigation.

Many times, you do not need to hire an attorney to handle the probate and administration of a loved one's estate. However, if you find yourself overwhelmed, you must not just sit and wait. It will cost you far more than money. A qualified estate administration attorney can guide you through the process. Moreover, the person named as executor is not individually responsible for paying for the fees - it comes from the estate off the top. After all, it is in everyone's interest to make sure Mom and Dad's wishes are carried out.

Top Ten Reasons to Have a Will

1. To determine who gets your money (Naming beneficiaries)

2. To determine guardianship (Saying who will take care of you children)

3. To determine who controls the money (Naming of executors and trustees)

4. To minimize estate or inheritance taxes

5. To avoid the cost of an insurance bond (If you do not allow for an executor or administrator to serve without paying for an insurance bond, the court will require one. In New Jersey, this can cost your heirs $500 for each $100,000 of assets you leave them)

6. To develop a trust for your heirs (This controls the timing of payout to beneficiaries)

7. To specify the authority of the Executor and Trustees (E.g. should they run a business, sell your property, or keep certain stocks?)

8. To determine who pays estate taxes (you can actually specify this and frequently should)

9. It provides for a quicker probate process

10. It clarifies your living intentions after your death (in other words, it maximizes the chance that your heirs will respect your wishes)